Othello Research
Courtney, Layla, Zach, Omari
Where is Cyprus? Why was it strategically important?
Location: Middle East, island in the Mediterranean Sea, south of Turkey (Source- www.CIA.gov)
Strategic Importance: Its has an ideal military position that would divide the two warring factions of the armies of Islam and Christianity. Its strategic importance is based on its perfect position for military use. Source-Toby Burns (noted scholar)
For centuries, Cyprus was the last outpost of western civilization, important both strategically and symbolically for its protection of trade routes. Beyond Cyprus to the east was the Turkish Empire. At the time Othello was written, just after 1600, white, Christian, Europe defined itself in opposition to the brown, Moslem, Turkish Empire. The Turks were hated and feared in England. The Turkish army had a reputation for fierceness, cruelty, and valor, and they were felt as a genuine threat should there be ashift in the balance of power. In 1571, after years of Venetian rule, Cyprus had fallen to the Turks. Shakespeares audience, watching Othello, would have seen the play, even though it is fictional, in the context of that recent historic event (much as an audience today would view a fictional story set during the fall of Saigon). The tragic end of Othello, governor of Cyprus, would have repercussions beyond its affect on the lives of the characters in the play. Due to the strategic importance of Cyprus and the precariousness of peace, these are events which would have global implications.
Source---http://www.indianarep.com/StudyGuides/Othello/Othello_venice_cyprus.htm
What was expected of a bride? ROLE OF THE BRIDE
In the Renaissance times a Renaissance Woman was supposed to marry well, be loyal to her husband and give birth to boys. Many women did not fit the mold of what they called a "Renaissance Woman." Many of them would fit in as more of a "Renaissance Man" or what we would call a "Renaissance Woman" in our day and age.
Girls were married for alliances between their families, not for love. Women were married with doweries that their family provided and they prepared household possesions to contribute to the new home. Brides were supposed to be virgins before marriage. Women were supposed had to be faithful and respect their fathers and the family over their wants and needs.
Women got involved in disputes about marriage, inheritance and property. In all these matters they had contact with officialdom, so they enter the record. What is particularly noticeable is that many women were familiar enough with the processes involved to use them constructively to their best advantage. It's no accident that women appear far more often in cases tried in the church courts (where even married women had a separate legal identity) than in the common law courts (where married women could not bring cases on their own account).
http://www.teacheroz.com/renaissance.htm http://www.open2.net/renaissance2/what/feminist/feminist_page02.html
Tristan, Amy, and Steph
Who were the Moors?
Moors (Latin Mauri), a mixture of people, mostly derived from Arabs and Berbers inhabiting northern Africa. Following the Arab conquest of the Berbers in the 7th century AD, mixture and intermarriage was prevalent between the two groups. As a people the Moors traveled northward and conquered Spain. They also inhabited Morocco, Algeria, and Mauritania. The term Moors remains ambiguous. Some authorities consider the Moors equivalent to the Berbers; others restrict the name to an admixture of Arab ancestry and refer to as Moors only the more settled Arabic-speaking population of the towns. In European history the term is applied loosely to the inhabitants of the Barbary states under Ottoman rule. The term lives in the names of the two countries, Morocco and Mauritania. http://www.encarta.com
Moors, nomadic people of the northern shores of Africa, originally the inhabitants of Mauretania. They were chiefly of Berber and Arab stock. In the 8th cent. the Moors were converted to Islam and became fanatic Muslims. They spread SW into Africa (see Mauritania) and NW into Spain. Under Tarik ibn Ziyad they crossed to Gibraltar in 711 and easily overran the crumbling Visigothic kingdom of Roderick. They spread beyond the Pyrenees into France, where they were turned back at Tours by Charles Martel (732). In 756, Abd ar-Rahman I established the Umayyad dynasty at Córdoba. This emirate became under Abd ar-Rahman III the caliphate of Córdoba. The court there grew in wealth, splendor, and culture. The regent al-Mansur in the late 10th cent. waged bitter warfare with the Christians of N Spain, where, from the beginning, the Moorish conquest had met with its only opposition. The cities of the south, Toledo, Córdoba, and Seville, speedily became centers of the new culture and were famed for their universities and architectural treasures (see Moorish art and architecture). With the exception of brief periods, there was, however, no strong central government; the power was split up among dissenting local leaders and factions. The caliphate fell in 1031, and the Almoravids in 1086 took over Moorish Spain, which was throughout the whole period closely connected in rule with Morocco. Almoravid control slowly declined and by 1174 was supplanted by the Almohads. These successive waves of invasion had brought into Spain thousands of skilled Moorish artisans and industrious farmers who contributed largely to the intermittent prosperity of the country. They were killed or expelled in large numbers (to the great loss of Spain) in the Christian reconquest, which began with the recovery of Toledo (1085) by Alfonso VI, king of León and Castile. The great Christian victory (1212) of Navas de Tolosa prepared the way for the downfall of the Muslims. Córdoba fell to Ferdinand III of Castile in 1236. The wars went on, and one by one the Moorish strongholds fell, until only Granada remained in their hands. Málaga was taken (1487) after a long siege by the forces of Ferdinand and Isabella, and in 1492 Granada was recovered. Many of the Moors remained in Spain; those who remained faithful to Islam were called Mudejares, while those who accepted Christianity were called Moriscos. They were allowed to stay in Spain but were kept under close surveillance. They were persecuted by Philip II, revolted in 1568, and in the Inquisition were virtually exterminated. In 1609 the remaining Moriscos were expelled. Thus the glory of the Moorish civilization in Spain was gradually extinguished. Its contributions to Western Europe and especially to Spain were almost incalculable-in art and architecture, medicine and science, and learning (especially ancient Greek learning). http://www.encyclopedia.com/articles/08742.html
What was the Military Hierarchy? Military Pay
SOURCE: http://www-adm.pdx.edu/user/sinq/greekciv2/sport/army/seanh4.htm Pay for military services rendered was essentially nonexistent. Military duty was concieved of as a duty to the state which meant that warfare was part of a citizen's responsibilities. Prior to military salaries, soldiers obtained pay through their victories; they sacked cities and confiscated booty which came to be their reward for military service. Not until the early fifth-century B.C. did payments for military service become common. The Athenians initiated their pay system in a time of peace during the thirty-year truce between the Delian League and the Peloponnesian League . Although their military payments were smaller than their nonmilitary funds, some soldiers who had no specialized skills in civilian fields found an adventurous and profitable lifestyle through mercenary work. The pay system initiated in Athens gave rise to a new aspect of military duties and the increased growth of professionalism in warfare. Mercenaries also began to play significant roles in battles over both domestic and international disputes, henceforth, leading to a growing theater of war in the Mediterranean states who were no longer bound by their own domestic limits but could now purchase international mercenaries.
SOURCE: http://www-adm.pdx.edu/user/sinq/greekciv2/sport/army/seanh3.htm The military hierarchy of ancient Greece could in retrospect be viewed as running parallel to its social hierarchy. The aristocratic class were the wealthiest and most politically powerful individuals of the populace. Their social position gave them an identical stature in the military hierarchy, for they assumed complete authority as trierarchs of both land and sea forces. Not only did they instigate wars but they also led them on the battle fields. Cavalry members were quite wealthy but were subordinates to the first census class. They supplied chariots and horses and equipped themselves handsomely with armaments; often they were commanders of small units. The hoplite soldiers who formed the phalanx were composed of third class members, and were capable of attaining the necessary skills and equipment to become heavy-infantry soldiers. The lowest class was conscripted into the light-infantry in which they were massed together under the leadership of the generals and commanders. Although the military hierarchy was imbued with the same social hierarchy as in their city states the military was much more than an obligatory service. It was a unifying patriotic force that was shared between all social classes on the battle field where each citizen saw himself as a soldier equal to any other.
Gabby Utting Andrew Hendricks Cooper Ross Linleigh Smith
What was the role of women?
What was the role of women? Prior to the 16th century society viewed women with the Christian and Aristotelian views which looked at them as sinful and imperfect. Writers such as Shakespeare challanged these views with their works and they were slowly changed. Women were mostly silent, they did not speak out much at all about their opinions, especially in public. Some women wrote, but mostly all they wrote about was prayer and meditation. The only real chance they got to write about their feelings was in poems. Women were beginning to get some power, the ruler of England at the time was Elizabeth who was the most powerful woman of her time. Nobel women had much easier lives while poorer women had to work hard to keep their husbands and families happy.
http://www.yale.edu/opa/v27.n29/story8
http:// www.shakespeare.com
Who were the Venetians?
During the late 1500’s and early 1600’s, the Venetians were a wealthy and therefore powerful people. This wealth was due Venice’s canals which made it an ideal place for trade. The wealth and power of this city did two important things in consideration of the plot of Othello. They made Venice a city of high importance to military and political officials and also gave the natives a great pride in their background.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?eu=117520&tocid=24063&query=1600%20venice http://web.uvic.ca/shakespeare/Annex/DraftTxt/MV/
Matt Love, Robbie Auray, and Dan Pietig
Ranks of the military and their role
General- The leader of the army in whatever city/state they serve. It usually is someone who has been in the army since a young age. They are powerful figures in society and are well respected. Generals are in charge of giving out promotions to their fellow soldiers. And control the actions of the entire army.
Lieutenant- A powerful position, is assigned by the General. Can give orders to other soldiers that have lesser ranks then him. This rank does not come with much social status but it is often used as a place to work from to reach higher ranks.
Marriage and Inheritance in Shakespeare's Era
The institution of marriage in the Renaissance Period was both secular and sacred. Secularly, it served as a union of two parties interested in acquiring property, money or political alliances. Marriage was also sacred in that it bound the love of a man and woman and sought procreation. William Shakespeare's work vividly displays the sacredness of love and marriage. Popular critics of his time considered Shakespeare the greatest love poet of all time. It was once said "he represented in an inimitable and masterly manner all the phenomena and manifestations of love." A working knowledge of both marriage and inheritance procedures in the Renaissance Period affords a better understanding of Shakespeare's works.
No property right was more significant than the right to succeed to landed estate. No right was more symbolic of the status of women, too. First, land descended to the eldest son to the exclusion of his siblings. But if there was no son, land went to the daughter. If there were more than one daughter then they were all equal heiresses. Common law gave a limited preference to males, as it gave daughters preference over collateral males, such as the nephew, or uncle, or male cousin. The younger son often received no inheritance after the bulk of it was given to the eldest son, so many times they sought higher education in order to provide for any family they might have in the future. The next to be considered for the inheritance of a deceased landowner was the widow. The widow had a large common law right which became very well protected in the 16th century. She was entitled to a third of her husband's land for life because of her right of dower. A husband could leave his wife less by specifying it at the time of his marriage. But by the time of Edward I, the dower became an irreducible third and husbands could instead now specify more dower. The legitimate heir, however, did reserve the right to object to this if he did. Over time the widow's third became a well protected right that extended over any land her husband had ever held during their marriage. If a husband wished to alienate land he had to get his wife's consent. If he alienated without her consent she could claim dower against the purchaser. Interestingly enough, a woman could not contract herself out of dower because it would put her rights at the mercy of the dishonest and those who would wish to take advantage of her. Shakespeare created lovers whose main concern was not what they would inherit, but rather the love felt for each other. One's inheritance was of great importance to a family's well being and, in many cases, survival. This was not usually the concern of many of Shakespeare's main characters. Many of his couples, such as Lysander and Helena, Romeo and Juliet, and Othello and Desdemona married for love rather than financial conveniences and inheritances. Shakespeare based his most unforgettable plots on love versus societal norms. Courtship of Shakespeare's time held two major forms. First, and most commonly, parents and friends were the matchmakers. They selected the possible spouse, performed careful examination of his economic prospects, and then brought the couple together to find out if there were any strong feelings of dislike between them in order to ensure that the couple would get along well in marriage. Parents did not advocate "forced" marriages because the best marriages were those that were equally consensual and desired by both parties. Freedom of choice varied for each child in a family. Each child had a certain amount of freedom in choosing their mate, depending on their different role. The eldest son was under the greatest pressure since he inherited the bulk of the estate. His marriage was often critical to the family's survival because they depended on him for financial support. Because a daughter's only real future lay in marriage, she had less freedom over her choice in a mate. Her family had to make sure she would be provided for. The youngest son had the most freedom because he often had to make his own fortune, as the inheritance was all but gone by the time he was old enough to provide for himself. The family did not depend on him and therefore had less interest in whom he married. If there were no signs of aversion between a couple then the planning of the marriage would commence. After the couple consented, the settlements were signed and a formal church wedding was arranged. The second form of courtship was handled for the most part by the parties involved. A man attracted to a certain woman would ask her family for permission. Keith Wrightson suggests in his documentation of 17th century marriage practices that "it seems reasonable to conclude that among the greater part of the common people marriage partners were freely chosen, subject to the advice of friends and a sense of obligation to consult or subsequently inform parents if they were alive and within reach." If the man was both financially and personally acceptable, permission was granted and courtship continued with visits, gifts, and expressions of love. In Shakespeare's play A Midsummer Night's Dream, he gives evidence to couples matched by their own will. The play begins with Theseus and Hippolyta talking of their upcoming marriage. Now fair Hippolyta, our nuptial hour Draws on apace; four happy days bring in Another moon^Öbut O, methinks, how slow This old moon wanes! She lingers my desires, Like to a step-dame or a dowager Long withering out a young man's revenue... (I.i. 1-6)
Theseus demonstrates here that the entry to marriage is of his own desire rather than a match made by parents. Hippolyta is equally as happy as Theseus over their union and chooses Theseus herself. Knowing that couples were usually matched by parents, Shakespeare went against societal norms and often displayed love as being the sole desire of the couple. This often became his central theme; lovers doomed by their disapproving families. Before a couple could officially be considered married by the church and common law, there were four basic requirements. First, the bride's family had to consent and a dowry be offered. Second, both parties had to be of equal social class. The third requirement was for the parties to publicly declare the wedding and to have witnesses. Finally, the couple had to consummate the marriage. In Measure for Measure, Claudio and Juliet are married by common law standards. However, they were married in secret and not in public, therefore, Claudio is arrested for impregnating Juliet without being legally married. I got possession of Julietta's bed. You know the lady; she is fast my wife, Save that we do the denunciation lack Of outward order. This we came not to, Only for propagation of a dow'r Remaining in the coffer of her friends, From whom we thought it meet to hide our love (I.ii. 146-52)
It was very important that marriage be witnessed. When it is found that Claudio disregarded this requirement, one of the main concerns of the play becomes whether or not he will die for it. Shakespeare emphasizes the risks and consequences of not following the requirements to marriage by presenting Claudio's life in danger at the start of the play. The church-sanctioned age for marriage was at a minimum 14 years for men and 12 years for women. The average age, however, was around 21 years for the eldest son and 20 for women. In Shakespeare's most famous play, Romeo and Juliet, the readers are able to see the significance of age in marriage. Juliet's mother, Lady Capulet, demonstrates the fact that it was possible to marry off a daughter at the extremely young age of 14 years old. Juliet is 13 when the plays starts and Lady Capulet is already in great haste to marry her off. Therefore, she feels it most pertinent to talk the matter over with her daughter immediately: ...younger than you, Here in Verona, ladies of esteem, Are made already mothers. By my count, I was your mother much upon these years That you are now a maid-- (I.iii. 69-73)
Lady Capulet felt that it was high time Juliet be married. The reader can see here the emphasis on the considerably young age of Juliet but realize, as well, that it was definitely conceivable in that time period. Shakespeare uses the knowledge of the church-sanctioned age to create Romeo and Juliet, and point out the characteristics of young lovers. Shakespeare's time period marked a time where marriage was an important aspect of people's lives. The ways in which people were matched and married was very evident in many of his works as he strove to depict love and the relationships that developed between men and women. The procedures to inheritance are an important aspect of marriage in that it gives people a better understanding of the reasons behind the way marriages were handled around the Renaissance era. Shakespeare's work can be used in comparison to other poets of different times to attest to the continuity of the fundamental features of marriage over the centuries. His work still has a compelling effect on its readers today because it focuses on the sincerity of the heart, often defying basic rules of society, even in modern times.
Rob Sobelman Katy Mann Karen Kang Ryan Egusa
NOTE TO BOLAND/CHIA: Hi, this is Rob. Karen and I did not submit an answer to question 11 because by ourselves, and then jointly we could not find any type of answer to this question. I know it sounds ridiculous, but its sadly true. Also, Ryan did not contribute to the submission as well for a reason unknown by myself. I don't want him to get in trouble, but basically the only one that found and sent an answer to me was Katy. Thanks, -Rob
How were Moors regarded during Shakespeare's Day?
http://www.geocities.com/Wellesley/7261/gripe5.html
Moors were characterized in Elizabethan England as being alternately or even simultaneously noble or monstrous, civil or savage. Being a different race meant, primarily, being an Other, non-English, as well as non-Christian (Braxton 8). The term Moor, as I have noted before, was fairly vague in definition. Bartels points out that in common usage, the word was used many times interchangeably with "similarly ambiguous terms as 'African,' 'Ethiopian,' 'Negro,' and even 'Indian'" (434). The convention of Christian art to represent Satan or other devils as being black or dark-skinned also lent another connotation to the reader, viewer, or performer of Shakespeare's plays. The Moor's increasing visibility in print most likely paralleled an increasing visibility in actual English society and/or knowledge (Bartels 434). There are three possible branches that most likely gave birth to the confused Elizabethan image of who and what a Moor was. This would be the Spanish Morisco, the North African Berber/Arab, and the Negro.
With politics of the late 1500s and early 1600s, not much had changed in terms of enmity. International trade and politics of the Elizabethan era also lent a hand in Shakespeare's depiction of the Moor. Although the Spanish interpretation of the Arab/Berber/Negro was most likely a factor in the Elizabethan image, extensive trading contracts and international diplomacy had a fair hand in offsetting the negative stereotype while at the same time perpetuating it. Both England and what we will call Morocco had a great anti-Catholic, anti-Spanish sentiment that bound their relationship further (D'Amico 7). Although Africa was considered a continent of infidels and pagans by many, the political danger of an invasion by Catholic Spain prompted England to forgo the stigma of trading in munitions with Morocco. The Moor in English Renaissance Drama by Jack D'Amico chronicles the international trading carried on in North Africa and the Ivory and Gold Coasts further south. Continuous trade was believed to have begun in the mid sixteenth century (D'Amico 8). Blacks from Africa were also first present in England during this time. Although mostly documented as slaves, before the triangular slave trade became institutionalized, there were also many free blacks who came and went throughout Europe (Jones 15).
Gizelle, Kathleen, Addison, Charlie
What was expected of daughters:
Daughters were seen as property to control by their fathers. They were expected to obey their father’s wishes and to marry by the age of thirteen. Daughters were objects to always be guarded and watched over, too tender and gentle to fend for themselves in a dangerous world. They were expected to preserve their chastity until marriage, and provide a dowry when they finally did marry.
http://gwis2.circ.gwu.edu/~pbatch/essay3.htm Othello and Post Modernism
Klapisch-Zuber, Christiane. Childhood in Tuscany at the Beginning of the Fifteenth Century. Annales de Demongraphie Historique. 1973. 99-122
Q #2 Gizelle, KAthleen, Addison, Charlie Who were the Turks? Ottoman Empire, dynastic state centered in what is now Turkey, founded in the late 13th century and dismantled in the early 20th century. At its height in the mid-1500s, at the end of the reign of Süleyman I, the Ottoman Empire controlled a vast area extending from the Balkan Peninsula to the Middle East and North Africa. The empire went into slow decline after Süleyman, and by the early 1900s it controlled only Asia Minor (the Anatolia region of present-day Turkey) and parts of the Balkans and the Middle East. The Ottomans lost even more territory during World War I (1914-1918). Allied troops occupied the empire from the end of the war until 1922, when nationalist forces under Mustafa Kemal (later Atatürk) drove them out; Kemal abolished the empire later that year and proclaimed the Republic of Turkey in 1923.
What were the military duties of ranked officers?
What were the military duties of ranked officers?
What were the Moors?
Eve Shafi Kristin Quijada
All I need is a BUNCH of research on playing the game Othello and how the game was started. Please help NOW!
how were the venetians treated
What was the role of women?